[red-knot] Support custom __getattr__ methods (#16668)

## Summary

Add support for calling custom `__getattr__` methods in case an
attribute is not otherwise found. This allows us to get rid of many
ecosystem false positives where we previously emitted errors when
accessing attributes on `argparse.Namespace`.

closes #16614

## Test Plan

* New Markdown tests
* Observed expected ecosystem changes (the changes for `arrow` also look
fine, since the `Arrow` class has a custom [`__getattr__`
here](https://github.com/arrow-py/arrow/blob/1d70d0091980ea489a64fa95a48e99b45f29f0e7/arrow/arrow.py#L802-L815))

Author: sharkdp

crates/red_knot_python_semantic/resources/mdtest/attributes.md

@@ -1199,6 +1199,98 @@ reveal_type(C.__mro__)  # revealed: tuple[Literal[C], Literal[B], Any, Literal[A
 reveal_type(C.x)  # revealed: Literal[1] & Any
 ```
 
+## Classes with custom `__getattr__` methods
+
+### Basic
+
+If a type provides a custom `__getattr__` method, we use the return type of that method as the type
+for unknown attributes. Consider the following `CustomGetAttr` class:
+
+```py
+from typing import Literal
+
+def flag() -> bool:
+    return True
+
+class GetAttrReturnType: ...
+
+class CustomGetAttr:
+    class_attr: int = 1
+
+    if flag():
+        possibly_unbound: bytes = b"a"
+
+    def __init__(self) -> None:
+        self.instance_attr: str = "a"
+
+    def __getattr__(self, name: str) -> GetAttrReturnType:
+        return GetAttrReturnType()
+```
+
+We can access arbitrary attributes on instances of this class, and the type of the attribute will be
+`GetAttrReturnType`:
+
+```py
+c = CustomGetAttr()
+
+reveal_type(c.whatever)  # revealed: GetAttrReturnType
+```
+
+If an attribute is defined on the class, it takes precedence over the `__getattr__` method:
+
+```py
+reveal_type(c.class_attr)  # revealed: int
+```
+
+If the class attribute is possibly unbound, we union the type of the attribute with the fallback
+type of the `__getattr__` method:
+
+```py
+reveal_type(c.possibly_unbound)  # revealed: bytes | GetAttrReturnType
+```
+
+Instance attributes also take precedence over the `__getattr__` method:
+
+```py
+# Note: we could attempt to union with the fallback type of `__getattr__` here, as we currently do not
+# attempt to determine if instance attributes are always bound or not. Neither mypy nor pyright do this,
+# so it's not a priority.
+reveal_type(c.instance_attr)  # revealed: str
+```
+
+### Type of the `name` parameter
+
+If the `name` parameter of the `__getattr__` method is annotated with a (union of) literal type(s),
+we only consider the attribute access to be valid if the accessed attribute is one of them:
+
+```py
+from typing import Literal
+
+class Date:
+    def __getattr__(self, name: Literal["day", "month", "year"]) -> int:
+        return 0
+
+date = Date()
+
+reveal_type(date.day)  # revealed: int
+reveal_type(date.month)  # revealed: int
+reveal_type(date.year)  # revealed: int
+
+# error: [unresolved-attribute] "Type `Date` has no attribute `century`"
+reveal_type(date.century)  # revealed: Unknown
+```
+
+### `argparse.Namespace`
+
+A standard library example of a class with a custom `__getattr__` method is `argparse.Namespace`:
+
+```py
+import argparse
+
+def _(ns: argparse.Namespace):
+    reveal_type(ns.whatever)  # revealed: Any
+```
+
 ## Objects of all types have a `__class__` method
 
 The type of `x.__class__` is the same as `x`'s meta-type. `x.__class__` is always the same value as

crates/red_knot_python_semantic/src/types.rs

@@ -2008,12 +2008,50 @@ impl<'db> Type<'db> {
             | Type::FunctionLiteral(..) => {
                 let fallback = self.instance_member(db, name_str);
 
-                self.invoke_descriptor_protocol(
+                let result = self.invoke_descriptor_protocol(
                     db,
                     name_str,
                     fallback,
                     InstanceFallbackShadowsNonDataDescriptor::No,
-                )
+                );
+
+                let custom_getattr_result =
+                    || {
+                        // Typeshed has a fake `__getattr__` on `types.ModuleType` to help out with dynamic imports.
+                        // We explicitly hide it here to prevent arbitrary attributes from being available on modules.
+                        if self.into_instance().is_some_and(|instance| {
+                            instance.class.is_known(db, KnownClass::ModuleType)
+                        }) {
+                            return Symbol::Unbound.into();
+                        }
+
+                        self.try_call_dunder(
+                            db,
+                            "__getattr__",
+                            &CallArguments::positional([Type::StringLiteral(
+                                StringLiteralType::new(db, Box::from(name.as_str())),
+                            )]),
+                        )
+                        .map(|outcome| Symbol::bound(outcome.return_type(db)))
+                        // TODO: Handle call errors here.
+                        .unwrap_or(Symbol::Unbound)
+                        .into()
+                    };
+
+                match result {
+                    member @ SymbolAndQualifiers {
+                        symbol: Symbol::Type(_, Boundness::Bound),
+                        qualifiers: _,
+                    } => member,
+                    member @ SymbolAndQualifiers {
+                        symbol: Symbol::Type(_, Boundness::PossiblyUnbound),
+                        qualifiers: _,
+                    } => member.or_fall_back_to(db, custom_getattr_result),
+                    SymbolAndQualifiers {
+                        symbol: Symbol::Unbound,
+                        qualifiers: _,
+                    } => custom_getattr_result(),
+                }
             }
 
             Type::ClassLiteral(..) | Type::SubclassOf(..) => {